Summary

The primary purpose of this investigation was to assess the potential of Q methodology as a tool for participatory planning in the adoption of agroforestry practices. Aesthetic landscape values in unprofitable Welsh upland sheep ranges are thought to be the main constraint to farmers' adoption of agroforestry techniques, and the diversification of farming practice, which offers potential benefits to livelihoods and environment. The range of commonly held viewpoints towards adaptation and protection of a sacred landscape in Upland Wales was investigated using Q methodology. Five viewpoints were discovered, two of the five permitting transformation, in principle, of a sacred landscape in face of need and progress. The study found that aesthetic preferences, when separated from a whole viewpoint, can be misconstrued and prevent adoption of agroforestry practices.

The promise of Q methodology as a tool for action research was found to be high because because it retains richness of information, whilst aiding analysis. It was concluded that the technique could be incorporated with data from on-farm analysis in participatory decision making.

Abstract

Aim

To probe for adaptive and protective principles of established viewpoints concerning farmers' agroforestry adoption decisions in an upland open Welsh Landscape.

The Problem

Aesthetic landscape values, in a cultural preference for an open landscape in an unprofitable and overgrazed Welsh uplands are thought to be the main constraint in the uptake of planned expansion of woodland (Good et al., 1999), and options for adoption of diverse agroforestry techniques in an integration of woodland and farming.

Recommendations to farmers, towards the adoption of new methods, requires dialogue (Welsh Office, 1995), where few local examples of proposed diverse farm practices exist, and a change to agroforestry represents a sudden transformation of the landscape. Aesthetic landscape values might be considered to be pure appreciation of form (Brady, 1998), but if they are situated in the context of the viewers life (Berleant, 1994), such values are likely to be modified by considerations of livelihood needs, or notions of progress. In upland Wales divergent viewpoints may exist which remain masked by publicly held aesthetic preferences, rooted in cultural experience.

Aesthetic preference may therefore be elevated to an inviolable sacred status and become an obstacle to sustainable development, and the expression of human adaptability. The alternative is that aesthetic values exist alongside belief that the open sheep ranges could soon be sustainable. With these points in mind, the following question was asked: In the face of need and progress in upland Wales, what principle viewpoints exist towards protecting or transforming a sacred landscape?

Definitions

nature - is consistently defined throughout this thesis as other than human, for the purpose of discussing human-nature relationship.Nature encompassing human nature is not denied, however. All things- come from nature, and so nature- as a term in this thesis, includes products fashioned by humans.

'sacred nature values' - refers to (1) to cultural practices denoting a human-nature relationship, and (2) to personal numinous experience with nature. - The meaning is explored in the thesis, and defined as work progresses. Sacred, - I leave undefined until then.

'sacred nature beliefs' refers to (1) belief in nature's forms as sacred; (2) nature as an aspect of Being, rather than inert matter, and therefore, possible to relate to as a Being.

heritage - is defined as coming from the past, possibly incorporating cultural meanings. Heritage, situated in the present, is acknowledged to have affective associations.

culture - refers to social customs.

Farmers Interests and Land-Use Objectives

Woodland Expansion

A key aim in woodland expansion in Wales is to integrate woodland management with farm businesses (MAFF, 2000), so much of the proposed woodland expansion is effect agroforestry. Agroforestry offers several benefits to farmers through farm diversification practices, including environmental benefits (Erison, 1988). Production of hardwood timber and wood products for industry will increase flexibility, provide income and, aid employment. An enhanced landscape is good for for tourism and biodiversity. Woodlands on upland hill farms enhance animal welfare, by providing shelter for livestock, and giving reductions in yield variance due to monocultures, which includes livestock diseases (McAdam et al., 1997). These advantages can offset costs of reduced stocking rates. The cost of farm-produced wood chip is approximately the same as transporting straw, which commands significant purchase costs. Wood can also be put to good use around the farm. Wooded grassland landscapes are found visually attractive, and improve the image of agriculture in society. Because of the benefits to the land, grants for whole farm management may be attracted through the Tir Gofal (Land care) scheme, administered under the The Wales Rural Development Plan (MAFF, 2000). Trees offer scope for the reintroduction of hardy cattle like the Welsh Black, raised for butter and meat, are productive, able to over-winter outside and, good foragers, but they require some tree shelter. Open pastures provide little shade, and lack sufficient wind protection during the winter.

Environmental Benefits

Enhanced productive flows from silvopasture agroforestry (see Fig. 1) include biodiversity, plant density and water use efficiency (Sinclair, 2001). Presence of litter at the surface improves water infiltration, reduces evaporation and runoff. Tree root-soil infiltration improves infiltration of water into soil, which aids flow into underground storage systems. This reduces risk of floods in lower catchment area from run off (Manale, 2000).

There are positive effects on nutrient transport, in the alternation of positive (facilitative) interactions between plant species at one life cycle stage, and competitive displacement at another stage. Increased interspecific competition may enhance niche differentiation (Olff et al., 1999). Fencing off woodland favours natural regeneration, but has disastrous effects on bryophytes (Gritten, 1999). Mixtures of excluded and open woodland can be built into optimal grazing regimes. Creating buffer zones around existing woodland would considerably increase the area of interior or core habitat and connectivity between the presently fragmented native woodland (Gkaraveli, 2001), and woodlands may be linked. There is a significant need for mixed woodland which favours birds such as kite, pied flycatcher, pearl fritilliary butterflies. Continuous cover is necessary for marsh tits which are associated with 25 hectare blocks of hedgerow and thickets. Nuthatch require 50 hectare of complete arboreal land, preferably mature woods. Dormice require 100 hectares woodland, including rotational coppice. In a system of diverse practices, open farmland would favour species such as lapwing, chough, and marsh fritilliary (Andrews et al. 1994). Silvopasture grazing regimes can produce biodiversity benefits, where fencing off favours the natural regeneration of woodland, but has disastrous effects on bryophytes (Gritten, 1999). Free-ranging large grazers, such as cattle and horses, are increasingly reintroduced into agricultural grasslands (Frid et. al., 1995), to induce and enhance vegetative structural diversity, with mosaics of grasslands, shrub thickets and trees. A spatial association of unpalatable and palatable plants contributes to shifting mosaics at the landscape scale (Plieninger et al., 2001). Large grazers poach the ground which assists shifting plant mosaics and overall, they are better than sheep for invertebrates. Sheep bite close to the ground, which in low densities, can result in a combination of under- and over-grazing, to produce varied sward structure which is good for invertebrates (Andrews et al., 1994). Thus mixed regimes of cattle and sheep offer most potential.

Strategic Decisions, Protection and Adaptation

Farmers are required to make strategic decisions (see Fig 1), in response to changing markets and environment. There are clearly many advantages to diversification, which involve a transformation of the landscape. 'Sacred values' in upland Wales involve aesthetic and heritage values for open landscape which, in this case, is an association of integrated livelihoods and land-use practices and, qualities of the landscape. Sacred values may allow for adaptation, but they may also prevent change. Semi-natural woodlands were once the dominant land cover, persisting beyond mediaeval times, with their removal from the landscape an adaptation to external economic leverage, and not to ecology, or out of preference for open landscape. It is likely that adaptation features in farmers' strategic decisions. However, suddenly changing practices, wholesale, without necessary knowledge, or desired assurances may be daunting. Changes to economic incentives in the balance between livestock and woodland subsidies are sought (NAW, 1999), yet the main loss to uptake in possible planting areas was reported to be on landscape grounds and not on ecological or agri-economic grounds (Good et al., 1999). Uptake of diversification practices requires dialogue with farmers, landowners, and interested parties to foster a more favourable attitude to the potential of integrating farming and forestry (Welsh Office, 1995).

Evaluating Farmer Preferences

There are options for agroforestry, and technologies should address problems in such a way that farmers will actually consider implementing them within their overall production strategy (Avila, 1992). They have to fit the local context, and so evaluation of any technology must begin with understanding relevance, impacts and implications at the household/farm level. A positive on-farm economic analysis provides a necessary, but not sufficient, indication of the successful introduction of an agroforestry project.

The implications of the technologies themselves, such as technical assistance, products, inputs, planting schedules and labour are relevant but, so too are humanistic values and environmental impacts. Developing and testing models that predict farm household land-use decisions is essential, and priority areas for research include empirical analysis of agroforestry adoption decisions, which leads the list in identified knowledge gaps in agroforestry research (Mercer et al, 1998). The example of Welsh upland aesthetic preferences shows that, in a dialogue with farmers it would be useful to assess viewpoints that express the whole range of adaptive and, protective concerns, including aesthetic values.

A situated aesthetic has power to explain local preferences for an open landscape. According Kant, in his Critique of Judgement, aesthetic appreciation and attention to nature is 'a judgement of taste' and is free from any interest or desire. A judgement of taste is a 'free liking' which arises through the mere contemplation of an object. Brady (1998) reasons that this is a 'situated aesthetic', embedded in a person's own context, which includes values, beliefs, desires, life experience, feelings and associations.

By contrast formalist aesthetics are detached, an exclusive attention to form, associated with combinations of lines, colours, and shapes, where 'we need bring with us nothing from life' (Bell, 1931). If that this were to be to true within upland Wales, local people might not be particularly attached to their local vista, when faced with a need to adapt farming practices. In 1999 a group of 10 farms Pontbren in Powys, Wales, at an elevation of 300 m., decided to commence with diversification as a strategic economic decision and as an expression of land care (FC 2001).

From the example provided by Pontbren, there may be local viewpoints involving strategic decisions that lie alongside aesthetic values, in a whole human-environment relationship, involving the capacity to adapt just as our ancestors had. However, to move from shape ranging in an open landscape to agroforestry is a transformation of the landscape. To whittle away at clearing the woods is probably easier to start, and continue, than to be the first to plant a tree in the middle of the open landscape. Starting from scratch, farmers may also be cautious, because existing agroforestry systems may be improved with greater ease and success than new ones (Christopherson, 1992).

Biodiversity, Land-Use and Livelihoods

It is reasonable to desire that a mosaic of natural ecosystems coexisting with a wide variety of agro-ecosystem models is maintained in fragile mountain environments. Biosphere reserves, reserves for the world, incorporate Tolcha Bhotia (Joshi, 2001). Traditional uses of the land were prohibited and villagers were excluded from its management, from its inception as a reserve.

Poachers were able to enter the jungle and villagers, from their perspective of human and biodiversity, or nature interaction, came to see conservationists as enemies of nature. Lessons have been learnt, and principles of management that incorporate traditional stewardship roles of mountain communities, as opposed to distant control, are thought to be promising. Such thinking has international support, and is recognised in the UNESCO's 1992 Earth Summit's Agenda 21, chapter 13 "Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Sustainable Mountain Development".

The involvement of mountain peoples in Protected Area planning and management is imperative since they know how to live with mountains (Hamilton, 2001). Management of these complex systems includes concerns for increased production, yet any developments to build on the current systems must fit into the ecological and social contours, taking into account the Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). Serious disruptions occur in middle intensity of monocropping management systems, where biodiversity decline is sharp (Swift et al., 1996).

Based on principles of reciprocity, a kind of give and take with an animated nature parallels the reciprocal relations within the social sphere. Acculturation, through development, tourism, migration and market expansion, will compromise indigenous peoples' ability to manage a fragile environment (Price, 1994). This is because TEK cannot be separated from cultural life and the associated pattern of livelihoods. Traditional cultures may be equally, or even more threatened than biological diversity (Byers, 1995), where mountain communities are very often among the world's poorest and most marginalised. It is because "Conflicts between ecology and economy, dependency and autonomy in mountain tourism remain unresolved" (Singh 1991), that initiatives to safeguard communities must not exacerbate the process of marginalisation.

Traditional economies tend to suffer from unfavourable terms of trade (Mountain Institute, 2002), an external pressure forcing communities to over-exploit their resource base for survival. Appropriate technological innovations in on-farm processing, and labour-reducing applications has potential to improve the welfare of highland communities. The implications for land use and livelihoods in traditional mountain cultures parallel, and contrast with those for upland Wales. One main difference is that in Wales land-use has to be adapted to external market changes which occur in the context of a centralised market structure, unless maintenance payments are made in some form. Another difference is the open landscape in Wales, to which adaptation may necessitate a transformation, which is adaptation on another scale, outside of local traditional knowledge. Possibly the most important lesson for conservation in Welsh uplands, though not new, is given by the notions of stewardship and symbiosis.

Humanising the landscape is a feature that lies behind sacred landscapes. They appear to involve a reciprocal relationship between man and nature with the element of a sacred ethos. This allows for environmental protection, adaptability, and a capacity for sustainable livelihoods. The integrity of culture is critical for their continued management. Cultural mythologies together with their management systems, that have led to the conservation of sacred landscapes cannot easily be incorporated into the Western cultural conservation ethos (Laird, 2001), and so it unlikely that complex traditions can be operationalised as a tool or model for transfer in conservation efforts. But the well-being, in terms of diversity, of anthropogenic agro-ecosystems still depends upon a creative cultural relationship, where custodians can earn a livelihood, and rural communities survive. Because sustainable development more specifically demands sustainable management of natural resources, a need for close interaction between planners and local communities is recognised. In order to achieve this, development strategies have to be based upon a value system that people can understand and appreciate, and therefore participate (Ramakrishnan, 2002).

Human Values for Nature

The worldwide significance of sacred values in natural resource management is recognised (Ramakrishnan, 1992), and there is reason to believe that in Britain people may have equivalent sacred values. Sacred values are categorised as moral values in environmental value philosophy (Edwards-Jones, 2000), where morals play a part in determining how we should act.

Environmental crisis, sacred and sacred values

Lynn White (1967) suggested a worsening environmental crisis until we reject the axiom that nature has no reason for existence save to serve man. According to White, the dominant strain of Western theism is the root cause in the exploitation of nature. He identified that dogma as representing God transcending a 'fallen' world, and humanity as exercising dominion over the world viewed as lacking intrinsic value. There are calls for a 're-sacralisation of nature' in the West. Posey (1999, pp. 103) urges we must 'discover how the balance sheet of economic and utilitarian policies', which characterise Western society's dealings with nature, can be countered by the 'sacred balance'. In general, what is held to be sacred is thought to be worthy of respect (Tucker, 2001).

Sacralisation of nature encounters questions of its compatibility with transcendental monotheism. Ancient and mediaeval Indo-european Celts and Germans practised nature mysticism. Cornelius Tacitus, in the 1st Century C.E. writes of the Ingaevones tribes of Germany, "they judge that gods cannot be confined within walls, nor portrayed in likeness to any human countenance; they consecrate groves and woodland glades, applying the names of deities to that hidden presence only sensed by the eye of reverence". Christianity, in the rise of the Roman Church was fiercely opposed to paganism, as a heresy: "The ruin of Paganism, in the age of Rufinius, is perhaps the only example of the total extirpation of any ancient and popular superstition", writes (Gibbon, 1995). An incongruity of monotheism and pantheism is not to be assumed, because Christianisation and Islamicisation of many countries has often resulted in a dual system of beliefs and practices (Mohs, 1994).

Exploitation of nature is not the only tendency amongst Christians, because nature, as God's creation, calls for respectful stewardship (Rupp, 2001).A retreat by traditional theism has led to a secular science where the 'sacred/spiritual' has become an other-worldly domain, rurally separate from nature and society. This in particular has allowed instrumental values to dominate, according to Apffel-Marglin (1998).

Social progress, spiritual progress and differentiation

Social and spiritual evolution are equated by George Feuerstein, (1987) and Wilber embraces that theory (Wilber, 1995), in an argument against the authenticity of nature mysticism in its relationship with nature. According to Wilber, dissatisfaction with the promise and state of the modern world, while in some respects well founded, can lead to a powerful regressive temptation. The reasoning behind this is as follows: Personal states of awareness are mistaken for transpersonal states and, as such, nature mysticism is more spiritually limited than the secular rationalism against which its adherents rebel. The secular West is at a higher stage of spiritual development than earlier mythic societies, a shift which depended on the emergence of rational language. Beginning perhaps 200,000 year ago the boundaries between self and world were fluid. While this kind of consciousness may sound mystical, Wilber believes that they simply "can't tell the difference between the part and the whole to begin with." ( Wilber, 1986 p.41). They would be at the mental level Wilber ascribes to children two and four years old, lacking "Impulse delay and control, the ability to postpone, channel, sublimate, and offset otherwise instinctive body-bound activities and typhonic magic." ( Wilber, 1986 p. 88). Contrary to Wilber's views, foresight was perhaps more important for people in those times than for us moderns, cushioned as we are against misfortunes by welfare and health care systems (DiZirega, 1996).

Cro-Magnon people, who flourished during an ice age in Europe, Asia, and North America, prepared for winters in a world populated by sabertooth cats, cave bears, and lions. They produced paintings and finely worked and sophisticated tools, sewing hide clothing, making bone needles, fish hooks. The claim that Cro-Magnon were barely able to speak is probably untrue, because it is known that the delicate hyoid bone, from which the voice box hangs to make human speech possible, is indistinguishable between Neanderthals and modern humans (Gore, 1996). Social progress, rather than depending upon individual spiritual evolution, may be simply the extension of the breadth of human cooperation; spiritual evolution develops primarily through an increase in the depth of co-operation with others (DiZirega, 1996)

Living Nature and Transformative Experience

Transcendental religious dogma is not inevitably a view of a fallen world. In the Islamic Correct Hadith, we read the saying of the Mohammed: 'The earth has been created for me as a mosque and as a means of purification' (Haq, 2001). The word mosque literally means a place of prostration, and prostration involves touching the ground, thus the earth in its entirety manifests sacrality. Buddhism generally sees the natural world as conjoined on four levels: existentially, morally, cosmologically, and ontologically (Swearer, 2001). Similar in holistic view of life is Daoism, which professes the Unity of Mankind, Nature and and Heaven, and so nature becomes a source of inspiration Mutuality of the human heart and Heaven is mediated by cultivating a harmonious relationship with nature, and so humans fully realise their potential (Miller, 2001). In Jainism, a contemplative tradition, the supposedly inert world abounds with sensuousness (Chapple, 2001).

Cosmological interventionists view the environmental crisis as a problem of our metaphysical relationship to nature, a dysfunctional cosmology (Greenbaum, 1999). There is evidence that behaviour is more effectively motivated by identification than by beliefs and obligation, regarding beneficence toward humans (Monroe 1998), and is most likely true regarding beneficence toward or protection of the non-humans as well. How could a new world view supplant an old one if, as Geertz (1973) believes, world view and ethos are mutually reinforcing? The appeal of a cosmology must be in its appeal to genuine human experience with nature. Buber's insight (1996), is that human life is only fully realised when the 'self' establishes itself in a genuine 'I-thou' relationship with the 'other'. This relationship is nothing except a reciprocity of Being. The industrial revolution and the rise of modern technology which has brought about a change in humankind. Humanity itself is alienated from nature, and individuals are alienated from one another by relating in the 'I-It' mode. A genuine relationship with nature allows natures' intrinsic potentials to be seen, and prevents its interpretation as a standing-reserve or a mere means (Buber 1996).

Buber's views of a human-nature relationship ties up with universal models of sacred experience (Rappaport, 1999) and widely reported transformative values with nature (Palmer, 1998). Since pe-history, the sacred-making activity has been an anthropological constant, meaning 'to set apart' (Paden 91). Sacred activities involve visible and invisible boundaries, conventions of behaviour, and ritual (Parkin, 1991; Anttonen 1996). These activities may refer to natural forms, invisible agents, or human creations, such as the marks on a flag, or a football game (Bell, 1997). All sacred symbols are acquainted with a numinous component which denotes non-discursive, affective, ineffable, inconceivable, mysterious, awesome- qualities (Rappaport, 1999: 23). Numinous character exists in the immanent (or ordinary) things, the supernatural, and states of consciousness. Thus, according to Mircea Eliade (1968), sacred realities represent an appearance of Being, a real existence,- while profane or mundane realities are in an ultimate sense merely non-existent. In contrasting the sacred with the mundane,- religious theory of values holds that mundane experiences lack numinous sensation whereas, sacred does (Ross, 2000).

Amidst calls for re-sacralisation of nature, the impression that sacredness is missing from our understanding of nature in the West, may be false; Milton (1999) thinks it is a fundamental and well established part of it, where environmental discourses contain personal statements and analytical observations which link nature with spirituality and affective experience. Milton provides the example of the care taken by a conservationist where they walk carefully across grassland, out of respect for nature. In Europe, times are now comparable to procuration times, where unconventional forms of sacralisation are invented (Dobbelaere, 1993), and ritualised 'sacred moments' created within personal cosmologies (Anttonen, 1999).

In an analysis of environmental education in Britain, Palmer (1998) investigated whether spiritual ideas, attitudes and experiences held or encountered by individuals may strongly influence their awareness of and concern for the environment. Of the participants, 211 (91 per cent) cited experiences of being 'outdoors in the natural world' as formative influences. Many of these were described in spiritual or affective terms, using expressions such as 'awe and wonder', 'mystery', 'transcendence' and referring to experiences of solitude and freedom (Palmer, 1998: 150-1). Adams expresses the relationship: 'Nature is something that can be experienced, very directly, and this experience is the spark from which wider concerns about nature can grow - it is a vital root of conservation' (Adams 1996: 104). This being so, living nature could generally be experienced as spiritual and sacred, in the absence of religious dogma.

Sacred and heritage values in Britain

A grove of Thor can be traced from the Eleventh century at Thundersley in Essex (Herbert, 1994), but sacred groves exist mainly in name only. Forty six existing names relating to sacred groves are listed in Roman-Britain.ORG's web site (2002) This doesn't include the Cornish and Welsh names Lann- and Llan, a holy or sanctified place or community, which later became sites of Christian churches. Where I live on Anglesey in the village, Llangoed, means church in the woods. It could be that heritage values express sacred values, but to custodians of sacred places such as Maori people,their sacred places are more than heritage, possessing a living dimension, a metaphysical and physical whole, where the past is viewed as part of the living present (Matunga, 1994). It might be fairer to say, sacred values could include heritage values, but more specifically, sacred values involve a numinous relationship. In Britain we protect heritage structures, and to a certain extent, our land as heritage. Yet, in Britain, cultural practices concerning sacred land practices that serve to bind together the past, present, and future of living communities, are largely lost (Hubert, 1994).

Goodin (1992), in a green theory of value reasons that, though society and history give context to our lives, non-human nature is on an altogether different scale. It lies outside human history and culture, and therefore provides a context, not just for the lives of individuals, but for humanity (Milton, 1999). From Matunga's observations, heritage value is separated from the sacred nature values, but it is likely that heritage values are mixed with sacred value for a person who is connected to place. With this in mind, and noting that qualities in nature, such as colour in place or region, are attributed sacred value cross-culturally (LaPena, 1987), it is possible, then to see how aesthetic preferences in upland Wales could be situated alongside sacred and heritage values. It is harder to think of them as formal aesthetics values. As, according to observation, sacred values permit adoption of the environment (Shukadeb et al. 2001; Ramakrishnan, 1992) and can be differentiated from protective heritage values (cf.Matunga, 1994), viewpoints concerning the protection of a sacred landscape, in face of need or progress, may vary. In the living world there is always a new aesthetic, a new colour, and nature is alive and ever changing. There is also the need to be pragmatic.

Human Welfare

Human Welfare, Economic Decisions, and Environmental Risks

Evidence exists that there are barriers to public participation in public planning (Norton, 2001). Public values may not be expressed or understood, and they may change.

Can a satisfactory aggregative form of valuation be devised which includes humanistic environmental values? Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a method frequently employed (Shrader-Frechette, 1998) in environmental planning, which depends upon the claim that neoclassical value theory can maximise welfare. A neoclassical revolution in value theories of economics at the end of the nineteenth century extended the definition of economic commodities as those things which embodied, for example, human labour or corn, to include anything which could form the focus of human desire (Rescher, 192.41). An Eighteenth century tool of social reform, utilitarianism is defined against a duty-oriented theory ("deontology,") developed by the Eighteenth eighteenth-century philosopher Immanuel Kant. Utilitarianism holds that the morally best action, in each given situation, lies in its consequences, which should bring about the greatest amount of pleasure or happiness to the greatest amount of people (Bentham, 1789). Economic analysis seeks to improve decisions regarding choice and uptake of technologies, and the efficient use of resources. Lacking direct personal knowledge of goals and preferences of the individuals, policy analysts use valuation techniques for non-marketable goods, or environmental changes, determined on a single scale. This is essentially a CBA enabling straightforward comparisons between alternative resource uses.

Environmental Values and Cost-Benefit Analysis

"A cynic is a man who knows know the price of everything and the value of nothing." ~ Oscar Wilde.

Preservationists are concerned that, if humankind has no instrumental use for nature, a risk will exist permitting the extinction of scientifically or aesthetically unremarkable, and commercially worthless species that do not seem to be vital to any ecosystem processes. According to anthropocentric philosophers rational humans confer value, and natural things lack intrinsic value. Imprudent and morally condemned practices may be restricted by means of appropriate legislation, education, and policy. However prohibitions and taboos associated with taking human life reveal an intrinsic value which separates it from virtually all other human value. Intrinsic value can be carried over into activities which knowingly cause the death of non-human organisms with goals or ends of their own and, by further extension, the elimination of species (Taylor, 1981). The value of "holistic entities" such as biotic communities and ecosystems which have no goals or ends of their own (Sylvan, 1973) remains unaccounted for, and conflicts exist between the welfare of domestic or feral animals and endangered plant species or overall ecosystem health; and also conflicts of interests between both domestic and feral animals, with wild animals.

Rolston III (1993) attempted a synthesis of individualism and holism by awarding a value dividend to species and to ecosystems upon which species depend. Many of the problems faced by CBA are monetary incommensurability. The effect of money as a common measuring rod is misleading or even harmful (Nussbaum, 1986) because for some things, the meaning of their value is corroded or destroyed. They simply are not convertible when difficult to recreate, replace or restore. Constitutive incommensurability is the idea that to put a price on things like life support functions of environmental services, is to be incapable of standing in the appropriate relationship to it (Raz, 1986).

Environmental Assessment (EA) has its foundations in practical problems of decision-making, in which economic valuation forms one component of the wider preference-based systems now commonly deployed in the EA. Contingent valuation (CV) is achieved by assessing 'willingness to pay' to avoid environmental hazards (Westra, 2000), where people's preferences are explicitly stated, rather than inferred. In a standard contingent valuation exercise a certain proportion of the sample will always reply 'everything' or 'nature is too valuable to be treated like this' or similar formulations (Sagoff, 1988). Such questionnaires are discarded because the analytic procedure doesn't recognise those answers, and neither can the underlying theory of contingent valuation. Otherwise, the possibility has to be acknowledged that the survey is aborted.

The assumption is only certain rational values are valid, and yet rationality falters in neoclassical theory, and may be totally misleading (Arrow, 1987). However, willingness to pay appears to be motivated by altruism in public contexts (Sen, 1977). This is especially the case with non-use values (Nyborg, 2000), and so contingent valuations fail to represent a viewpoint. For CBA, and probably for all preference-based value systems including CV, intrinsic value poses a problem of logical inconsistency exposed by asking, 'How much do I have to pay to kill someone?' (Prior, 1998). The answer is that the right to purchase an intentional act of murder is simply forbidden. In any case numbers of environmental vetoes, each similar in weight to the ultimatum 'Thou shalt not kill', is logically ridiculous. The trouble is, all environmental CBA evaluation, and probably all preference-based evaluation, is at odds with beliefs in the existence of objective and intrinsic values (Prior, 1998).

Since nature will always be useful for human welfare, the main problem with an instrumental approach does not lie with the contingency of nature's utility for humankind, but in cost-benefit value theory. Prudentially, an instrumental approach might achieve protection for nature as well as, or even better than other approaches, if guiding values permit. It is possible, even inevitable, that economic preferences along with other social preferences are incorporated in any practical decision making process (Keat, 1994).

However, claims of neoclassical valuation to be rational and general fall if breached by only one technical assumption, and environmental 'externalities' which cause conditions of market failure is a serious breach. Value theories do not provide ethical framework and economic valuation and its rules rely upon social market agreements (Edwards-Jones, 2000) not immutable laws of the market.

Participatory Management and Sustainable Development

Participatory Approaches to Environmental Management

Participation in planning is associated with collaborative decision making, and the ability of people to move themselves toward a desirable future, in dignity, with an understanding of different viewpoints. A typical scenario would engage stakeholders in the generation of ideas, collective analysis, co-operative learning, and critical reflection--activities formerly believed to be the territory of experts and researchers (Roumlling et al., 1998). Participatory rural appraisal arose in response to problems of outsiders mis-communicating with local people in the context of development work (Chambers et al, 1989) and action research (Hall, 1977). The participatory approach presented itself as a solution to the challenge of operationalising the concept of sustainability, by focussing on the need to negotiate, through dialogue, how local meanings will shape projects (Chambers, 1997).

Chambers noted the power of participation to catalyse positive effects in rural areas outside the developing world, such as in Europe and North America. Small farm co-operatives and organised sustainable agriculture farming organisations have been an outcome (Allen et al., 2001; Grudens-Schuck, 2000). In industrialised countries, participation is appreciated as an organising framework for environmental management challenges, because otherwise programs largely mirror the values of science-based organisations and dominant voices in the community (Thrupp, 1989). Its' purpose in helping communities identify and adopt more sustainable natural resource management practices remains a fundamental (Pretty & Chambers, 1993).

The challenge of gaining insight into people's various viewpoints to reaching compromise, may seem daunting, but it is a participatory approach, and a process. The methods are distinct from a one-time aggregation of individual interests like simple cost-benefit calculations, which fail to capture the goals and motivations of local participants. The outcomes of participatory processes can enable practitioners to agree upon a coherent local reality on which to base a program. And at the level of the individual as well as the group, participation drives commitment, which is necessary to longevity of results as well as to short-term success (Cohen et al., 1980). Q-methodology was to be assessed for its potential to contribute to a participatory process.

Structured or semi-structured interviews depend upon content analysis. Van den Berg and Van der Veer (1989) assert, "Content analysis is not capable to analyse communications as discourses" (p. 161). Content analyses are limited because they succeed or fail depending upon the categories used. Simple rank ordering with no attempt to scale between the ranks presents problems of comparison, and ranking can only be performed with relatively few items.

All the conditions set out here are met in the methodology provided by Stephenson's (1932.4) 'Q-method'. No alternative exists at present, and in that sense the method is ground-breaking.

Method of Investigation

Aim

To probe for established viewpoints involving adaptive and protective values, concerning farmers' agroforestry adoption decisions in an open upland Welsh Landscape.

Problems and choice of method

A method is required to incorporate sacred/secular beliefs, transformative values and protective, adaptive responses to issues of environmental management. By establishing participants' values within their viewpoint, problems of incommensurability of values are avoided. The values under consideration lie in the field of human-nature relationship. To probe for values and beliefs associated with a person's viewpoint in the field of 'human-nature relationship', a methodology is needed that solves a certain problems. Failure to obtain information about beliefs and values within the whole topic places limits upon statistical analysis where several viewpoints exist. The method should be able to represent the views communicated by all people within the topic specified; It should put the individual at the centre of the point of view, and not be bound to any particular ideology. The method should reveal genuine schemata, which should not be artefacts of the instruments by which they were measured. It should use its mathematics, not to count but to chart the structure and shape of thinking (Barchak, 1984). The method should be hypothesis-generating. And finally, its' procedure and content should interesting to the judges.

Structured or semi-structured interviews depend upon content analysis. Van den Berg and Van der Veer (1989) assert, "Content analysis is not capable to analyse communications as discourses" (p. 161). Content analyses are limited because they succeed or fail depending upon the categories used. Simple rank ordering with no attempt to scale between the ranks presents problems of comparison, and ranking can only be performed with relatively few items.

All the conditions set out here are met in the methodology provided by Stephenson's (1935) 'Q-method'. No alternative exists at present, and in that sense the method is groundbreaking.

Q-Method Overview

The Q-Sample Classification

The Q-sample Structure

Procedure

Results

Download or open the attached pdf for results.

Analysis and Discussion

Five factors were found.

Demographic Variables

Summary of the 5 Viewpoints

The interpretation of the factor 'types' is primarily based upon the array of factor statement scores, given in Appendix A.6. and standard errors for factor scores in Appendix A.7. The summaries here have been drawn from statements which follow below, with full analyses.

Those who believe in science and the law's ability to manage the environment, are labelled 'administrator'. Belief in modern technology's ability to enhance environmental management may be labelled 'technologist'. Those who offer protection to sacred landscapes from development may be referred to as 'protector'. Those types that permit development of sacred landscapes for human welfare may be referred to as 'adaptive'.

Sacred beliefs covered in this study are of two types; the sacred in nature's forms, and a sacred source of nature. Those types with a belief in sacrality of nature's forms are referred to as 'sacred'. From the statements of interest, the five types can be characterised as follows:

• F1 'Sacred Adaptive' (SA) = Sacred-nature beliefs and adaptive.
• F2 'Technologist' (T) = technology values.
• F3 'Sacred Protector' (SP) = Sacred-nature beliefs, protector.
• F4 'Protector' (P) = protector.
• F5 'Administrator' (A) = belief in Sacred-source of nature and technology beliefs.

Future Research and Applicability of the Findings

The implications of the divergent viewpoints for Welsh Uplands communities are:

An expressed aesthetic cultural preference for open landscapes is bound in a persons' whole viewpoint, where beliefs and values exist which permit transformation of a valued landscape for need or progress. This is true for two of the four viewpoints.

Local concerns for sustainable livelihoods may lie alongside aesthetic values.

Aesthetic preferences separated from a viewpoint, involving adaptive and protective values, can misconstrue their meaning, and in so doing, may prevent adoption of agroforestry practices. Stakeholders may still hope that sheep farming will become profitable again, and therefore think this is not the time to adapt farm practices.

An open landscape as an amenity for tourism may increasingly serve to maintain livelihoods. Tourism is not a land use practice, and will not maintain the land. In the future, headage payments may be removed, and sheep farming may not become profitable again, at present levels of stocking. If stock is to be reduced, it is also possible that policy incentives may emerge which serve to integrate woodland with farming. Farmers may have a sense of 'waiting for something to happen', in terms of policy. In an open landscape, effectively a farming monoculture, adaptation of farm practices represents a transformation. Aesthetic preferences to maintain the status quo may represent an uncertainty, not only for the future but also in how to adapt. Both these ideas need to be addressed in dialogue with farmers. Upland communities, without assistance in participatory action research, may have a slim chance of adapting, as a community, to a situation which requires conscious moves towards a transformation.

Although potential benefits are recognised, it is not a view of the author that open upland Wales should be transformed through farm land use practices, and that is a matter for stakeholders. There is a concern that aesthetic preferences are a reason to delay adaptive trials, or cover a need for assistance in participatory action research. Dialogue is needed, and presentation of the outcome of dialogue in the form of commonly held local viewpoints has potential to catalyse change, or strengthen resolve.

On Farm Analysis

In this study, only principles were of interest, but in actual consultation a Q sample might be expanded to include relevant local values, sampled from the population, and possibly some added, for a specified purpose. An analysis of viewpoints incorporating material from farm surveys and focus groups, landowners and tenants, would stimulate local discussions. A framework for farmer preferences could include the following:

• On-farm economic analysis
• Existing Traditional ecological Knowledge (TEK) and, flows (e.g. from AKT5)
• local biodiversity values
• local constraints to land use and livelihoods
• Local aspirations concerning land use.

Additionally constraints to adoption might include,

• Availability of technical assistance
• Implications of technologies upon the number and seasonality of workdays.

Subject to the chosen framework, knowledge elicitation strategies which are designed to access insider's knowledge without relying on assumptions and presumptions, known as the 'emic' approach (Werner, 1987), are considered useful because they capture the insider's knowledge. Relevant programmes are more likely to be achieved where planned with due regard to the farmers' perspectives (Rocheleau, 1987). Traditional approaches to dealing with complex agro-ecosystems systems, by abstraction as quantative simulation models have had limited impact on their development (Meutzelfeldt and Sinclair, 1993).

Explicit representation of farmers' knowledge has been developed (Tharpa et al, 1995) methods of representing farmer's preferences and goals has not. Values are incorporated into Knowledge based system, AKT5 (Sinclair and Walker, 1997), but not preferences which are needed for agroforestry adoption studies. These are normally elicited through ranking methods normally, which are limited. Seven or eight sets of land use choices appeared to be the limit for those farmers in Casey et al.'s farmers survey (1999). Systems diagrams can help farmer's make decsions, but eight attributes seemed to be too much information for farmers to evaluate at once, and this to was narrowed to five attributes (Casey. et al, 1999). How choices are to be limited, is not clear (Avila, M., 1992). Within an emic appraoch, aspirations, constraints and values may be elicited, and subsequently assessed in Q methodology, without severe limits upon number of choices. Assessment of local biodiversity values, used for assessing the local value of local habitats for conservation, also relies upon rank scores, but cannot be sued predictively due to the constraints of non-scalar scores, detached from a viewpoint which includes competing values. If biodiversity values were to be incorporated in the framework of one concourse, the predictive value would be enhanced. Methods of elicitation are well established (Gadjil et al., 2002).

In order to assess the impacts of research in multiple dimensions and communicate that information to decision-makers and stakeholders Trade-Off Analysis (TOA) links inputs and outputs from the various disciplinary simulation models on a site-specific basis (Yanggen et al., 2002). When attempting socio-economic appraisals, because the long-term benefits of resource conservation are minimised in discounting calculations,'Steady state' models, might be employed for changes to agroforestry as a resource-conserving interventions. This assumes a requirement to maintain the resource base regardless of discounting (Christopherson, 1992), and is a matter for policy makers.

Stephenson's (1953) chapter on "The Prior Analysis of Questionnaires" shows that the results of a Q study can be built into a questionnaire for purposes of nose-counting, by selection of particular statements. In that way, consultations can progress to aggregate summaries, to be employed for consensus decision-making.

Participatory Planning

The Participatory Rural Appraisal approach often has the dual aims of of action and research, a methodology which has the action to bring about change in some community or organisation Data on evaluation processes for assessing the products of participation have been thin (Warren, P. 2001), and action research provides a means by which participative consultancy is more rigourous. There are four basic themes: i) collaboration through participation; ii) acquisition of knowledge; iii) social change; and iv) empowerment of participants (Allen, 2001). It employs the assumption that effective social change depends on the commitment and understanding of those involved in the change process (Lewin, 1946 p.14).Lewin's concern with science and social reality, was that science was not helping in the resolution of critical social problems (Susman & Evered 1978). Surveys and other social research results are useful, but so is information on why different people see things as they do.

When using an action research approach, the results of the Q analysis are discussed by participants. When Q is melded with group work, the Q factors are contrasted, and the structure of their own thought is wavers more, or is more open (Grudens-Schuck, personal comm.)

Q methodology has the capacity to evaluate use and non-use values, without reduction to a single dimension, yet permit comprehension of the rich information. A philosophical shift from social facts as objective- facts to the idea of facts as subjectively and socially constructed- has come to be associated with the concept of qualitative- research. Thinking in action research seems to take the social construction of reality seriously. The emphasis seems to be on possibility rather than prediction. From this perspective of action research, it can contribute to people realising their values, and so envisaging a preferred future and organising effectively to achieve it. Hence, action research is a science of practice.

Research Opportunities

Diversification of Upland Wales land-use is currently a planning option. Reluctance to by outsiders to intervene is understandable, out of respect for local self-reliance. A dichotomy of, either dependence or, self-reliance, is unrealistic, and interdependence is more the way things are. Yet adaptive research should not determine an outcome.

In proposing action research a worry exists, where local communities reject change, because adaptive research is costs money. Such an intervention would have to be justified, and calls for assistance from within communities are perhaps a primary justification for such action. A preliminary survey to see if local people want help in decision-making could assist. Adaptive research for mainly academic purposes has been done, and limited trials in any case could be taken forward, employing values, goals and options from real farm studies.

It is notable that conservation staff are said to favour protection of open moorland and valley sides as habitat, mainly for birds. Some areas are SSSI and proposed SAC (good et al, 1999). If farmers were to express strong desires for diversification, a case for protection would need to be reviewed, against the benefits of change to biodiversity. In that case, farmers would also have a case for maintenance payments, in order to maintain the status quo. This would have to depend upon budget forecasts, which are a good idea in any case when assessing farmers' viewpoints on the issues of planning.

Q Methodology and Local Viewpoints

Because the interpretation is explicit and based upon actual statements in a context of a viewpoint, reduction to a priori assumptions have been avoided. With the structure of a topic, it has been able to test the hypothesis that sacred nature beliefs are associated with transformative environmental values and, thereby, contribute to an understanding of humanistic environmental values. It has also been able to test the hypothesis that divergent viewpoints exist toward sacred aesthetic values.

With method in balancing a Q sample, ideology has been avoided, and so representations of actual viewpoints obtained with no idea beforehand how many viewpoints would be revealed, or what their structure was. Both the differences and the Complementarity of viewpoints are revealing, and of relevance to planners, in understanding the values of stakeholders. They were compared as phenomena, and for that purpose only a few participants were required to define each viewpoint.

There is no guarantee that the factors discovered in the sample of respondents will be exhaustive for the future, and so they were contemporary expressions. The same factors cannot be assumed to appear in each and every locality, an empirical matter where relevance depends upon the representativeness of responders to a locality. Comparisons between Wales, and outside Wales, of a principled set of beliefs and values, do support the generalisability of their existence as principles across the larger population, and within the chosen localities in Wales. They do not represent responses to environmental issues concerning a particular location, field or mountain for example. For that purpose concourse samples from the locality, involving all relevant and specific issues would be necessary. The findings as generalities do serve to instruct some relevant dimensions in constructing such a concourse, in response to a specific public consultation exercise.

Review of Q and Recommendations

Q methodology's ability to represent viewpoints, is born out in the robustness of the factors found in this study, their meaning, and their fit within a framework. Confirmation of Hooker-Clarke's(2002) findings in Q research into roles in sustainable development, where changes had taken place in people since the preservationist administrative rationale came into being, with steward- perspectives in evidence.

The potential therefore of Q methodology to use local values and make sense of them, recommends itself for action research.

There are skills needed in the employment of Q methodology, which is a limit upon its use on the one hand, and a benefit in its rigourous method on the other hand. Considerable time was needed to interpret factors for presentation. Interpretation was made easier by reference to internally structured sub-topics, for which reflection and insight into the whole area is required. Some statements were not useful for interpretation according to the present aims, but provided the context for those statements, and so a point of view within human nature relationship, could be represented.

Examining the whole viewpoint would be fascinating, but would not answer the research questions. A purpose, and knowledge of relevant issues is required to sample a concourse. Interpreter bias could occur at that point. If the Q sample cannot represent a particular viewpoint, than it has failed. Procedure should follow caution, in obtaining all relevant viewpoints, and that is a skilled facilitator's task.

Homogeneity of statements is crucial in balancing of the sample, which is an aid in removing such interpreter bias. Therefore a pre-trial with a small number of participants of about five participants is to be recommended in order to complete post-hoc tests, and make adjustments. As an additional safeguard the concourse may be completed in a consortium. Employing Q methodology for consultation is best done under guidance because it involves skill. In this respect it recommends itself to action research because public participation in planning is important and should be of high quality. Action research aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to the goals of social science in advancing knowledge, by joint collaboration within an ethical framework' (Rapoport, 1970:499; Whyte, 1989). The interpretations in Q and the method are transparent, because the whole Q sample provides the context.

The Five Viewpoints

Discussion

Conclusions

A potential danger was found to exist where the meaning of aesthetic or heritage preferences is misconstrued, when separated from a person's whole viewpoint, to become an obstacle to sustainable development. This study has attempted to illuminate principled viewpoints in protecting, or transforming, a sacred landscape in Upland Wales. Five divergent viewpoints were found to exist in Upland Wales which were consistent with viewpoints outside of Wales.

Cherished aesthetic values were situated within a person's whole view of human-environment relationship, of which two viewpoints permitted transformation of a sacred landscape in face of need and progress.

Community-based natural resource management, in a local context, requires tools which can assess all points of view on a topic, in order to remove barriers to participation. Commonly held points of view are actually limited in number, and Q methodology is able to reveal these, whilst retaining richness of information, without reduction to a single dimension.

Q method was proposed as a tool for agroforestry adoption studies. A next step in that direction would involve a test using a framework, incorporating economic analysis, TEK, livelihood and land-use constraints, biodiversity values and, aspirations of participants.

Q method was proposed as a tool for consulting the public, by collecting views and feeding them back to the public for discussion. Its special ability to make transparent environmental values and beliefs within commonly held viewpoints, without reduction to a priori assumptions, recommends itself for stakeholder discussion in action research when planning sustainable development.

Viewpoints embodying beliefs in the sacrality of nature were confirmed to exist, and contrast with secular viewpoints. Sacred nature beliefs were underpinned by transformative experiences with nature, rather than cosmological belief. This finding may have implications for the opportunities education provides. Sacred nature beliefs were, in particular, associated with a stewardship role and flexibility concerning adapting the environment. Four viewpoints out of five in all, amongst the public, demonstrated a stewardship orientation toward environmental management, which offers opportunities to planners in enhancing the environment.

This investigation concerning human environemental values confirms how sacred dimensions to environmental values are universal, and bear on a human relationship with the environment They are relevant to conservation and adaptation in community-based natural resource management.

References

Articles

Adams, W. M. (1996) Future Nature: A Vision for Conservation. London, Earthscan.

Allen, W., Bosch, O, Gibson, R., & Jopp, A., (2000) Benefits of collaborative learning for environmental management: Applying the Integrated Systems for Knowledge Management approach to support animal pest control. Environmental Management 27 (2) 215-223.

Andrews, J. & Rebane, M. (1994) Farming & Wildlife.RSPB, Bedfordshire.

Anttonen, V. (1999) The Sacred Critical Guide to the Study of Religion. (eds William Braun & Russell T. McCutcheon). London.

Apffel-Marglin, F. (1998) Secularism, Unicity and Diversity: The case of Haracandi's grove. Contributions to Indian Sociology - 32 (2) 217-235.

Arrow, K. (1987) Economic Theory and the Hypothesis of Rationality. In Eatwell, et al., (ed),The New Palgrave, London, Macmillan.

Avila M., (1992) Economics of Agroforestry Systems in Central America. In

Sullivan, G., et al., Financial and Economic Analyses of Agroforestry Systems. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Hawaii.

Bell, Catherine (1997) Ritual. Perspectives and Dimensions. Oxford.

Bell, Clive (1931) Art. London: Chatto and Windus.

Bentham, J. (1970/1789) Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Methuen, London.

Berleant, A. (1994) Beyond Disinterestedness British Journal of - Aesthetics - 34 (3) 242-254.

Bhat, Jayashree V.,, Krishna K.., Krushnamegh K.., Kunjeera, M., Laxman N.,, Nayak M., Ranjit D., Shankar J., Shridhar P., Shrikant G., Subramanian K., Suri V., Utkarsh, G., Yogesh G., (2000) Participatory Local Level Assessment of Life Support Systems A Methodology Manual. Technical report No.78.Centre for Ecological Sciences Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

Bookchin, M. (1982) The Ecology of Freedom: The Emergence and Dissolution of Hierarchy, Palo Alto California, Chesire Books.

Brady, E. (1998) Don't Eat the Daisies: Disinterestedness and the Situated Aesthetic Environmental Values 7 97-114

Brookfield, H. & Paddoch, C. (1994) Appreciating Biodiversity: A Conservation Paradox. In Bormann, F.H. & Kellert, S.R. (eds) Ecology, Economics, Ethics: The Broken Circle. pp. 26-39. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven.

Buber, M.(1996) I and Thou (Walter Kaufmann, trans.), New York, Touchstone.

Byers, E. (1995) Mountain Agenda: Environmentally Sustainable and Equitable Development Opportunities. The Mountain Institute, Franklin, USA.

Byrd, K. (2002). Mirrors and Metaphors: Contemporary Narratives of the Wolf in Minnesota. Ethics, Place, and Environment: 5 (1 )

Carmichael, D. et. al., (1994) Introduction. In Carmichael, D. et. al., (eds) to Sacred Sites, Sacred Places, London: Routledge.

Chambers, R.et al., (1989).Thrupp (eds.). Farmer First: Farmer Innovation and Agricultural Research. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Chandran, M. & Hughes, J. (1997) The sacred groves of South India: Ecology, traditional communities and religious change. Social Compass 44 (3) 413-427.

Chapple, C.(2001) The Living Cosmos of Jainism: A Traditional Science Grounded in Environmental Ethics. In Carmichael, D. et. al., (eds) (1994) Sacred Sites, Sacred Places, London: Routledge.

Christopherson, K.A. (1992) Highlights of Themes Discussed In Sullivan, G.M., et al., Financial and Economic Analyses of Agroforestry Systems.- Pia, H1: Nitrogen Fixing Tree Asociation, Hawaii

Cohen, J. M. & Uphoff, N.T. (1980) Participation's Place in Rural Development: Seeking Clarity Through Specificity, World Development 8 213-235.

Comte, A. (1823) Systéme de politique positive. Countryside Agency (2000) The State of the Countryside 2000: working for people and places in rural England. Wetherby: The Countryside Agency Publications.

Daniels, R. J. R., Malathi H., Joshi, N. V. & Madhav Gadgil, M. (1991) Assigning Conservation Value: A Case Study from India. Conservation Biology 5 (4) 464-475.

DETR (1999) The UK Strategy for Sustainable Development: a better quality of life. London: DETR..

DiZerega, G. (1996) A Critique of Ken Wilber's Account of Deep Ecology & Nature Religions. Trumpeter- 13 ( 2) <u>http://www.icaap.org </u> Access date: May 2002.

Dobbelaere, Karel, (1993) Church Involvement and Secularisation. Making Sense of the European Case. Secularisation, Rationalism and Sectarianism. Ed. by Eileen Barker, James A. Beckford, and Karel Dobbelaere. Oxford.

Edwards-Jones, G.et al., (2000) Ecological Economics Blackwell, Oxford.

Eliade, M. (1968) The Sacred and the Profane; Harcourt, Brace and World, New York.

Erison, S.P. (1988) Diversification of Upland Farms into Environmentally Sensitive Productive Woodlands. MSc thesis UCNW.

Fairweather, J. R.& Swaffield, S. (1996) Preferences for Scenarios of Land Use Change in the Mackenzie/Waitaki Basin. New Zealand Forestry- 41 (1) 17-26.

Fawcett, R., Nkowani, K., Smith, C.J.N., (1997) Multiple objective Socio-economic models of agroforestry systems. Agroforestry Forum 8 42-45

FC (2001) Forestry Commission: Woodlands Hold the Key, Farmers Tell Minister News Release - 3634

Feuerstein, G. (1987) Structures of Consciousness: The Genius of Jean Gebser - an Introduction and Critique Lower Lake, CA: Integral Publishing.

Frid, C. & Evans, P. (1995) In Managing Habitats for Nature Conservation, (ed) Sutherland.

Gadgil M., Achar K. P, Amba Shetty, Anirban Ganguly, Harini N., Harish R.

Gholz,H.L. pp 59-87. Martinus-Nijhoff, Dordrecht.

Geertz, C. (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures. N.Y. Basic Books.

Gibbon, E.(1995) Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (XXVIII). In

Womersley, D. (ed) The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Penguin Classics.

Gleissman, S. (1990) Agroecology: Researching the Ecological Basis for Sustainable Agriculture. Ecological Studies. Springer-Verlag, New York. pp.380.

Good, J., Thomas, T., Clough, D., Humphrey, J. (1999) The Potential for Expansion of Upland Woodlands and the Environmental and Agri-economic Constraints: A Welsh Case Study. Scottish Forestry- 53 (1) 47-52 Goodin, R. E. (1992) Green Political Theory. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Gore, R., (1996) Neandertals: The dawn of humans. National Geographic. 128 (1) p. 29.

Greenbaum, A. (1999) Environmental Thought as Cosmological Intervention Environmental Values 8 485&mdash;497

Gritten, R.(1999) Woodland Grazing. Scottish Forestry - 53 (1)

Grudens-Schuck, N. et al., (2002) Renovating Dependency and Self-Reliance for Participatory Sustainable Development Journal of Agriculture and Human Values- Revised accepted (finally submitted June 5, 2002)

Habermas, J.(1984) The Theory of Communicative Action, vol 1: Reason and the Rationalisation of Society, Beacon Press.

Hall, B. L. (1977) Creating Knowledge: Breaking the Monopoly. Toronto, Canada: Participatory Research Group, International Council for Adult Education.

Hamilton, L. (2001) National Parks and Other Protected Areas in Mountains World Commission on Protected Areas, IUCN.International Journal of Wilderness. 7 (2)

Haq, S. (2001) Islam and Ecology: Toward Retrieval and Reconstruction. Religion and Ecology - Daedalus 130 (4) <u>www.daedalus.amacad.org </u> Access date: July 2002

Hardin, G. (1968) The Tragedy of the Commons. - Science 162 1243-1248

Healey, P. (1997) Collaborative Planning: shaping places in fragmented societies. Basingstoke: Macmillan.

Healey, P. & Shaw, T. (1994) Changing meanings of the &#8220;environment&#8221; in the British planning system, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,- N.S. 19 (4)

Hubert, J. (1994) Sacred beliefs and beliefs of sacredness Ch 1. In Carmichael, D. et. al., (eds) (1994) Sacred Sites, Sacred Places. London: Routledge.

James F., Casey, D., Mercer, E. & Snook, A. (1999) Evaluating Farmer Preferences for Agrofoestry Sytems: Survey Instrument design - by ICRAF <u>www.icraf.cgiar.org </u> Access date: June 2002.

Joshi, P. (2001) Culture, People and Nature in Context of Central Himalayas in India. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development <u>http://www.mtnforum.org/resources/library/</u> Access date: June 2002.

Keat, R. (1994) Citizens, Consumers and the Environment, Environmental Values 3 333-49.

Kant, Immanuel. A Critique of Judgement: IN Crawford, D., Kant's Aesthetic Theory (1974) Madison, WI: U Wisconsin Press.

Kropotkin, P.A. (1972) Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution. New York: NYU Press.

Kuhn, T.S.(1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press.

Laird, S. (2001) Trees, Forests and Sacred Groves The Overstory 93 <u>http://WWW.agroforester.com</u> Access date: July 2002. LaPena, F. (1987) The World is a Gift. San Francisco: Limestone Press.

Lewin, K. (1948) Resolving Social Conflicts: selected papers on group dynamics. New York, Harper.

Low, B. S. (1996) Behavioural ecology of conservation in traditional societies. Human Nature - an Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective 7 (4) 353-379.

MAFF (2000) Agriculture in the United Kingdom: Agriculture Accounts, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London: The Stationary Office.

Manale, A. (2000) F*lood and Water Quality Management through Targeted, Temporary Restoration of Landscape Functions: Paying Upland Farmers to Control Runoff*. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation - 55 ( 3)

Matunga, H.(1994) Wahi tapu: Maori sacred sites. In Carmichael, D. et. al., (eds) Sacred Sites, Sacred Places. London, Routledge.

McAdam, J.& Hoppe, G. (1997) Sheep performance and production from a lowland silvopastoral system Agroforestry Forum.8 (3) 21-22

Mercer, D.E. (1992) Executive Summary in Central America. In Sullivan, G.M., et al., Financial and Economic Analyses of Agroforestry Systems.- Pia, H1: Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Hawaii

Meutzfeldt, R. I. and Sinclair, F.L. (1993) E*cological Modelling of Agroforestry Systems*. Agroforestry Abstracts- 6 (4) 207-247.

Miller, J.(2001) Envisioning the Daoist Body in the Economy of Cosmic Power. Religion and Ecology, Daedalus 130 (4).<u>www.daedalus.amacad.org </u> Access date: July 2002

Milton, K. (1999) Nature is already sacred. Environmental Values- 8 (4) 437-449.

Mohs, G. (1994) Sto lo sacred ground. In Carmichael, D. et. al., (eds), Sacred Sites, Sacred Places. London, Routledge.

NAW (1999) (National Assembly for Wales) Woodlands for Wales - Report of Consultation &copy; Crown Copyright 2001

Norton, B.(2001) Environmental Values and Adaptive Management, Environmental Values 10 473&mdash;506

Nussbaum, M. (1986) The Fragility of Goodness. Cambridge, C.U.P.

Nyborg, K. (2000) Homo Economicus and HomoPoliticus: interpretation and aggregation of environmental values. Journal of- Economic Behaviour & Organisation- 42 305-322.

Olff, H., Vera, F., Bokdam, J., Bakker, E. S., Gleichman, J. M., Maeyer, K. de, Smit, R., Shifting mosaics in grazed woodlands driven by the alternation of plant facilitation and competition. Plant Biology, 1999, Vol.1, No.2, pp.127-137, 64 ref.

Owens, S. (1994) Land, Limits and Sustainability: a conceptual framework and some dilemmas for the planning system. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers N.S.- 19 (4) 439&mdash;56.

Paden, W. E. (1991) Before 'The Sacred' Became Theological: Rereading the

Durkheimian Legacy. Method & Theory in the Study of Religion - 3 pp. 10-23.

Palmer, J. A. (1998) Spiritual ideas, Environmental Concerns and Educational Practice. Environmental Concern: London and New York: Routledge.

Parkin, D. (1991) Sacred Void. Spatial images of work and ritual among the Giriama of Kenya. Cambridge.

Pimental, D. & Pimental, M. (1979) Food, Energy and Society. Edward Arnold, London.

Plieninger, T. & Wilbrand, C. (2001) Land Use, Biodiversity Conservation, and Rural Development in the Dehesas of Cuatro Lugares, Spain. Agroforestry Systems - 51 (1) pp.23-34.

Posey, D. (1999) ed. and comp., Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity London: Intermediate Technology.

Pow, R. (1996) Managing Farm Woods-Costs and income. Q.J. forum. 90. 308-312

Pretty, J.N. & Chambers, R. (1993) Towards a learning paradigm: New professionalism and institutions for agriculture. Brighton, UK: IDS.

Price, N.(1994) Tourism and the Bighorn Medicine Wheel: how multiple use does not work for sacred land sites. In Carmichael, D. et al., (eds) - Sacred Sites, Sacred Places,- London, Routledge.

Prior, M. (1998) Economic valuation and environmental values. Environmental Values 7 (4) 423-441.

Ramakrishnan, P. (2002) Sacred Mountain Forests and Biodiversity. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. www.icimod.org.sg/mtn_resource Access date: June 2002.

Ramakrishnan, P. (1992) Shifting Agriculture and Sustainable Development: An Interdisciplinary Study from North-Eastern India. UNESCO-MAB.Parthenon Publ., Lancs. U.K. 424 pp

Rapoport, R. N. (1970) Three dilemmas in action research. Human Relations- 23 499-514.

Rappaport, Roy A. (1999) Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity. Cambridge.

Raz, J. (1986) The Morality of Freedom. Oxford, Clarendon.

Reiche, C. (1992) Economic Analyses of Living Fences in Central America. In

Sullivan, G.M., et al., Financial and Economic Analyses of Agroforestry Systems. Pia, H1: Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Hawaii.

Rescher, N. (1975) Introduction to Value Theory. London: Prentice Hall.

Robbins, P. (2000) The practical politics of knowing: State environmental knowledge and local political economy. Economic Geography 76 (2) 126-144.

Rocheleau, D.E. (1987) The user perspective and the agroforestry research and action agenda. In Agroforestry: Realities, POssibilities and Potentials, ed.

R&ouml;ling, N. G. & M. A. E. Wagemakers (eds) (1998). Facilitating Sustainable Agriculture: Participatory Learning and Adaptive Management in Times of Environmental Uncertainty. C.U.P. Cambridge.

Rolston III, H.(1993) Challenges in Environmental Ethics, in Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology, edited by Michael E.

Zimmerman, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Ross, K.(2000) T*he New Friesian Theory of Religious Value* <u>http://www.friesian.com/newotto.htm</u> Access date: June 2002.

Rupp, G.(2001) Religion, Modern Secular Culture, and Ecology Religion and Ecology, Daedalus 1304 American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Cambridge, MA <u>www.daedalus.amacad.org </u>Access date: July 2002

Rydin, Y. (1999) Can We Talk Ourselves into Sustainability? The Role of Discourse in the Environmental Policy Process. Environmental Values 8 467&mdash;484

Sagan, D. & Margulis, L. (1994) Sustaining the Unsustainable: Toward a Slower Ecocide. In Chapple, C., (ed) Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives.- New York: SUNY Press.

Sagoff, M. (1988)* The Economy of the Earth.* New York: Cambridge University Press.

Sen, A.K. (1977) Rational fools: a critique of the behavioural foundations of economic theory. Philosophy and Public Affairs- 6 317-344

Shrader-Frechette, K. (1998) First Things First: Balancing Scientific and Ethical Values in Environmental Science. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 88 (2) 287 (3 pages)

Shukadeb N., Senapati,B., Sahu, J., (2001) A Study of Three Hill Bhuiyan Tribal villages of Western Orissa. Integrating Mountain culture and Natural Resource Management, ICIMOD <u>http://www.mtnforum.org/resources/library/</u> Access date: July 2002.

Sinclair, F.L. (2001) Professional Update on Agroforestry Department for International Development. Natural Resources Advisors Conference.

Sinclair, F.L.and Walker, D.H. 1999. A utilitarian approach to the incorporation of local knowledge in agroforestry research and extension: In: Buck L.E., Lassoie, J.P., Fernandes, F.C.M. (Eds.), Agroforestry in Sustainable Agricultural Systems. Lewis Publishers, New York, pp. 245-275.

Singh, T.(1991)* Keep the Sharks out of the Mountains.* <u>http://www. ourplanet.com</u> Access date: June 2002.

Spellerberg, I.F. (1992) Evaluation and Assessment for Conservation, Chapman and Hall, London.

Susman, G., & Evered, R.(1978) An assessment of the scientific merit of action research. Administrative Science Quarterly,- 23 (4) 582-603.

Swearer, D.(2001) Principles and Poetry, Places and Stories: The Resources of Buddhist Ecology. Religion and Ecology, Daedalus, 130 (4) <u>www.daedalus.amacad.org </u>Access date: July 2002

Swift M., Vandermeer, J., Ramahrishnan, P.S., Anderson, J., Ong, C.K., Hawkins, B., (1996) Biodiversity and Agroecosystem Function. IN: Functional roles of biodiversity: a global perspective. Mooney, H., Cushman, J., Medina, E., Salas, O., Schulze, E., (Eds.), London, Wiley. p. 261-298.

Sylvan, R.(1973) Is There a Need for a New Environmental Ethic? Proceedings of the XV World Congress of Philosophy No. 1: Varna, Bulgaria 205-210. In

Zimmerman, M. (ed), (1998) Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology, 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Tacitus, Cornelius.(translated by H. Mattingly), The Agricola and the Germania, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1970, p.109.

Taylor, P. (1981) The Ethics of Respect for Nature, Environmental Ethics - 3 197-218

Tharpa, B. Sincalair, F.L., & Walker, D.H (1995) Incorporation of Indigenous Knowledge and Perspective Sin Agroforestry Development. 2: Case study on the impact of explicit representation of farmers' knowledge. Agroforestry Systems 30 249-261.

Thrupp, L. A. (1989) Legitimizing local knowledge: From displacement to empowerment for Third World people. Agriculture and Human Values 6 (3) 13-23.

Tucker, M.& Grim, J.(2001) The Emerging Alliance of World Religions and Ecology Religion and Ecology, Daedalus, 130 (4) American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Cambridge, MA <u>www.daedalus.amacad.org </u> Access date: June 2002.

Ucko, P. (1994) Foreword, In Carmichael, D. et. al., (eds) Sacred Sites, Sacred Places, London: Routledge.

UNESCO (1996) Sacred Sites - Cultural Integrity, Biological Diversity. Programme proposal, November 1996, Paris.

Usher, M.B. (1986) Wildlife Conservation Evaluation. Chapman & Hall, London

Wall, D. (1999) Earth First! and the Anti-Roads Movement. London: Routledge.

Warren, P. (2001, April).* Survey-at-a-Distance on Assessment of Stakeholder Participation in FAO Field Programmes*. Rome: FAO, Sustainable Development Department, Available: <u>http://www.fao.org/sd/2001/PE0401a_en.htm. </u> Access date: June 2002.

Wong J., Ambrose-Oji, B., Lawrence, A., Lysinge, R., Healey, J, (2002) Development and promotion of improved methods for identification, assessment and evaluation of biodiversity for tropical mountain environments 2: Ranks, counts and scores as a means of quantifying local biodiversity values School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Wales Bangor Paper prepared for the ETFRN workshop on Participatory monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity: the art and the science. 7-25 January 2002. ERP project R7112 - European Tropical Forest Research Network. Available on the ETFTRN web site <u>http://www.etfrn.org/etfrn/workshop/biodiversity/index.html</u> Access date: May 2002.

Welsh Office (1995): The way Ahead for Welsh forestry. Report to the Minister of State for Wales by the Minister's Welsh Forestry Group. Welsh Office Cardiff.

Werner, O. & Schoepfle, G.M. (1987)* Systematic Fieldwork 1 Foundations of Ethnography and Interviewing*. Sage Publications.

Westra, L.(2000) The Disvalue of 'Contingent Valuation' and the Problem of the 'Expectation Gap'. Environmental Values 9 153&mdash;71

Whyte, W.F. (1989) Advancing scientific knowledge through participatory action research. Sociological Forum 4 (3)- 367-385.

White, L. (1967) The historical roots of our ecologic crisis. Science- 155 1203-1207.

Wilber, K. (1986) Up From Eden, Boston: Shambhala

Wilber, K. (1995) Sex, Ecology, Spirituality, Boston: Shambhala, p. 166.

World Commission on Environment and Development.(1987). Our Common Future. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Yanggen, D., Antle J., Stoorvogel J., Bowen W.,, Charles Crissman C., (2002) Tradeoff Analysis as a Tool for Assessment of Economic and Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Research: <u>www.cimmyt.org/Research/Economics/impacts.</u>Access date: April 2002.

Zar, Jerrold H. (1996) Biostatistical Analysis. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Q Methodology

Arrindell and Van der Ende (1985) An Empirical Test of the Utility of the observations-to-Variables Ratio in Factor and Components Analysis. Applied Psychological Measurement- 9 165-178.

Barchak, L. (1984) Discovering Communication Paradigms With Q Methodology : Ferment or Sour Grapes? Operant Subjectivity- 7 (4) 115-130.

Brown, S. (1993) A Primer on Q Methodology Operant Subjectivity - 16 91-138.

Brown, S.R. & Melamed, L.E. (1990) Experimental Design and Analysis (Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences series), 74 Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Brown 1, S.R. (1971) The Forced-Free Distinction in Q-Technique. Journal of Educational measurement- 8 283-287.

Brown, S.R. (1971) Experimental Design and the Structuring of Theory. Experimental Study of Politics- 1 (1) 1-41.

Brown, S.R. (1980) Political Subjectivity: Applications of Q-Methodology in Political Science. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Brown, S.R.(Sep 2002) Reporting Results. Q Methodology Network <u>Q-method@listserv.kent.edu</u> Access date: June 2002.

Cottle, C.E. & McKeown, B. (1980) The Forced-Free Distinction in Q Technique: a Note on Unused Categories in the Q Sort Continuum. Operant Subjectivity 3 58-63.

Durning, D. (1999) The transition from traditional to post positivist policy analysis: A role for Q-methodology. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 8 389-410.

Durning, D. (1996) The Transition from Traditional to Post-Positivist Policy Analysis: A Role for Q Methodology. Paper presented at the Eighteenth Annual Research Conference of the Association of Public Policy Analysis and Management. Pittsburgh, PA.

McKeown, B. & Thomas, D. (1988) Q Methodology. London: Sage Publications.

Rosch, E. (1973) Natural Categories Cognitive Psychology - 7 573-605

Sen, A.K. (1977) Rational Fools: a Critique of the Behavioural Foundations of Economic Theory. Philosophy and Public Affairs- 6 317-344

Shands, W.E., Sample, V.A. & LeMaster, D.C. (1990) National Forest Planning: Searching for a Common Vision 2. In Critique of Land Management Planning, USDA Forest Service. Washington, D.C.

Sohn, D. (1991) The Interaction Concept in Scientific Discourse and in the Analysis of Variance. Journal of Psychology- 125 621-629.

Stainton Rogers, R. (1995) Q methodology. In J.A. Smith, R. Harr&eacute;, & L. Van Langenhove (Eds.), Rethinking methods in psychology - Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.

Stainton Rogers, R. & Stainton Rogers, W.(1990) What the Brits got out of the Q: And why their work may not line up with the American way of getting into it! <u>http://www.cios.org </u> Access date: May 2002

Stephenson, W. (1953) The Study of Behaviour: Q-Technique and Its Methodology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Chap. 9), The Prior Analysis of Questionnaires, pp.190-218.)

Stephenson, W. (1963) Independency and Operationism in Q-Sorting. Psychological Record 13 269-272.

Stephenson, W. (1967) The Play Theory of Mass Communication. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Stephenson, W. (1977) Factors As Operant Subjectivity. Operant Subjectivity 1 3-16.

Stephenson, W. (1978) Concourse Theory of Communication. Communication - 3 21-40. (Cf. Protoconcursus: The concourse theory of communication. Operant Subjectivity 1986 9 37-58, 73-96.)

Stephenson, W. (1980) Newton's Fifth Rule and Q Methodology: Application to Educational Psychology. American Psychologist - 35 882-889.

Stephenson, W. (1980) Consciring: a General Theory for Subjective Communicability. In D.Nimmo (Ed.), Communication yearbook 4 (pp. 7-36). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

Stephenson, W. (1982) Q-methodology, interbehavioral psychology, and quantum theory.Psychological Record - 32 235-248.

Stephenson, W. (1987) William James, Niels Bohr, and complementarity: III - Schrodinger's cat. Psychological Record 37 523-544.

Stephenson, W. (1963) Public Images of Public Utilities. Journal of Advertising Research 3 (4) 34-39.

Stephenson, W. (1953) The Study of Behaviour: Q-technique and Its Methodology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research.

Thomas, D.B. & Baas, L.R. (1993) The issue of generalization in Q methodology: Reliable schematics revisited. Operant Subjectivity - 16 18-3

Thompson, B. (2000): Q-Technique Factor Analysis: One Variation on the Two-Mode Factor Analysis of Variables. In L. Grimm & P. Yarnold (Eds.), Reading and understanding more multivariate statistics (pp. 207-226). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Van den Berg, H. and C.G. Van der Vee. (1989) Ideologies in the News: on the Measurement of Ideological Characteristics of News Reports. Gazette - 14 159-194.

Bibliography

Ackermann, R.J. (1985) Data, Instruments, and Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Altheide, D. L., & Johnson, J. M. (1994). Criteria for Assessing Interpretive Validity in Qualitative Research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp. 485-599). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Andrews J. & Rebane, M. (1994) Farming & Wildlife RSPB, Bedfordshire.

Apthorpe, R. and Des Gasper (eds) (1996) Arguing Development Policy: frames and discourses. London: Cass.

Bartlett's F.C.Remembering. C.U.P. 1932

Boulding, K. (1989) Three Faces of Power, Newbury Park, California, Sage.

Carmichael, D., Hubert, J., Reeves, B. & Schanche, A.(1994) Sacred Sites, Sacred Places. London, Routledge.

Carney, D. (ed.) (1998) Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: what contribution can we make? (papers presented at the Department for International Development's Natural Resources Advisers' Conference, (July 1998) London: DFID

Case, D.D. 1990. The Community's Toolbox: The Idea, Methods and Tools for Participatory Assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation In Community Forestry. Bangkok: FAO.

Chapple, E. D. and C. S. Coon. 1942. Principles of Anthropology. Henry and Holt, New York.

Dennis, P., Bentley, C. & Jones, J.R.(1994) Impact of Grazing Systems on Insects and Spiders Livestock Farming Systems: research, develoment socio economics and land management. Third International Symposium Aberdeen, Scotland.

Edwards-Jones, G.et al., (2000) Ecological Economics Blackwell, Oxford.

Greene, D. & Cousins, S. (1996) Landscape Ecology and GIS Taylor & Francis.

Haverkort B., Van der Kamp, J. & Waters-Bayer, A. (eds). (1991) Joining farmers' experiments: Experiences in participatory technology development. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.

Holling, C. S. E. (1978) Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management, Chichester, Wiley.

ICEP (2001) Institution of Civil Engineers Presidential Commission to review the technical approaches to flood risk management in England and Wales.

IIED (1991) Participatory methods for learning and analysis. RRA Notes 14. International Institute for Environment and Development, London. International Institute for Environment and Development 1996. Participation, Policy and Institutionalisation. PLA Notes No. 27. London: IIED

Key, C. (1994) Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives. Ed. by Christopher Key Chapple. New York: SUNY Press, 236pp.

Keynes, J.M. (1921) A Treatise on Probability. London: Macmillan.

Kuhn, T. S. (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago, Chicago University Press.

Leopold, A. (1949) A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There New York: Oxford University Press,

Lovegrove, R., Williams, G. & Williams, I. (1994) Birds in Wales. Poyser.

Lovelock, J. (1988) The Ages of Gaia.London: W.W. Norton & Co.

Marsden, D., Oakley, P. and Pratt, B. 1994. Measuring the Process: Guidelines for Evaluating Social Development. INTRAC NGO Management and Policy Series No.3. Oxford: INTRAC.

Nelson, N. & Wright, S. 1995. Power and Participatory Development: Theory and Practice. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Okali, C., Sumberg, J., & Farrington, J. 1994. Farmer Participatory Research: Rhetoric and reality. London: Intermediate Technology. 159 pp.

Peterken, G. (1993) Woodland Conservation and Management Chapman & Hall, London.

Rackham, O. (1986) The History of the Countryside Dent.

Ramakrishnan P., Purohit, A., Saxena, K., Rao, K., and RK Maikhuri R. (eds.) (1998) Conservation and Management of Biological Resources in Himalaya IBH Publishing, New Delhi : Oxford and London.

Rescher, N. (1975) Introduction to Value Theory. Prentice-Hall, London.

Robbins, L. (1935) An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science. Macmillan, London.

Slocum, R., et al., Power, Process and Participation: Tools for Change, Intermediate Technology Publications.

Stewart, D. W. and Shamdasani, P.M. (1990) Focus Groups: Theory and Practice. Applied Social Research Methods Series Volume 20, Newbury Park: Sage Publications

Striker, G. (1986) Antipater, or the Art of Living In. Schofield & Striker The Norms of Nature CUP London

Sullivan, G.M., et al., (1992) Financial and Economic Analyses of Agroforestry Systems. Pia, H1: Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Hawaii

Sutcliffe, S. & Bowman, M. (eds) (2000) Beyond The New Age: Exploring Alternative Spirituality. EUP: Edinburgh.

Sutherland W. (1995) Managing Habitats for Conservation CUP.

Veldhuizen, L.V., Waters-Bayer, A., Zeeuw, H.D. (1997) Developing Technology with Farmers: A Trainer's Guide for Participatory Learning. London and New York: Zed Books. 230 pp.

Walters, C.J.(1986) Adaptive management of renewable resources. Macmillan, New York.

Warren, D., Michael, L., Slikkerveer, J. & Brokensha, D. (1995) The cultural dimension of development: Indigenous knowledge systems. Intermediate Technology Publications, London.

Wilson, R. A., ed. (1997) Human Rights, Culture and Context. London: Pluto Press

Young, A. (1989) Agroforestry for Soil Conservation CAB.